A First Taste

This chapter gives an overview of the basic features of Separation Logic, by means of examples. The examples are specified and verified using a Separation Logic framework whose construction is explained throughout the course.

Parsing of Programs

The source code of the programs considered are written within Coq, using a "custom grammar" that allows writing code that reads almost like OCaml code. For example, consider the function incr, which increments the contents of a mutable cell that stores an integer. In OCaml syntax, this function could be defined as:   let incr =
    fun p →
      let n = !p in
      let m = n + 1 in
      p := m In Coq, we describe the corresponding program as shown below. Observe that all variable names are prefixed with a quote symbol. This presentation avoids conflict between program variables and Coq constants. The function defined, named incr, admits the type val. This type is defined by the framework.

There is no need to learn how to write programs in this custom syntax: source code is provided for all the programs involved in this course. To simplify the implementation of the framework and the reasoning about programs, we make throughout the course the simplifying assumption that programs are written in "A-normal form": all intermediate expressions must be named using a let-binding.

Specification of the Increment Function

The specification of incr p is expressed using a "Separation Logic triple", that is, a predicate of the form triple t H Q. The term t here corresponds to the application of the function incr to the argument p. We could write this application in the form <{ incr p }>, using the custom syntax for parsing programs. That said, we can also write the same term in the form (incr p), leveraging Coq's coercion facility to reuse Coq's syntax for application. In other words, the specification of incr can be written in the form triple (incr p) H Q. The components H and Q correspond to the precondition and to the postcondition, which are explained next. To improve readability, we follow the convention of writing both the precondition and the postcondition on separate lines.

In the specification above, p denotes the "location", that is, the address in memory, of the reference cell provided as argument to the increment function. Locations have type loc in the framework. The precondition is written p ~~> n. This Separation Logic predicate describes a memory state in which the contents of the location p is the value n. In the present example, n stands for an integer value. The behavior of the operation incr p consists of updating the memory state by incrementing the contents of the cell at location p, updating its contents to n+1. Thus, the memory state posterior to the increment operation is described by the predicate p ~~> (n+1). The result value returned by incr p is the unit value, which does not carry any useful information. In the specification of incr, the postcondition is of the form fun _ ⇒ ... to indicate that there is no need to bind a name for the result value. The general pattern of a specification thus includes:

• Quantification of the arguments of the functions---here, the variable p.
• Quantification of the "ghost variables" used to describe the input state---here, the variable n.
• The application of the predicate triple to the function application incr p---here, the term being specified by the triple.
• The precondition describing the input state---here, the predicate p ~~> n.
• The postcondition describing both the output value and the output state. The general pattern is fun r ⇒ H', where r names the result and H' describes the final state. Here, r is just an underscore symbol, and the final state is described by p ~~> (n+1).

Note that we have to write p ~~> (n+1) using parentheses around n+1, because p ~~> n+1 would get parsed as (p ~~> n) + 1.

Verification of the Increment Function

Our next step is to prove the specification lemma triple_incr which specifies the behavior of the function incr. We conduct the proof using tactics provided by the frameworks, called the "x-tactics" because their name start with the letter "x". These tactics include xwp for starting a proof, xapp for reasoning about a function call, and xsimpl for proving that a description of a state entails another one.

xwp begins the verification proof.

The proof obligation is displayed using a custom notation of the form PRE H CODE F POST Q. In the CODE section, one should be able to somewhat recognize the body of incr. Indeed, if we ignore the back-ticks and perform the alpha-renaming from v to n and v₀ to m, the CODE section reads like:
      <[ Let n := App val_get p in
         Let m := App val_add n 1 in
         App val_set p ) ]> which is somewhat similar to the original source code, but displayed using a special syntax whose meaning will be explained later on, in chapter WPgen. The remainder of the proof performs essentially a symbolic execution of the code. At each step, one should not attempt to read the full proof obligation, but instead only look at the current state, described by the PRE part (here, p ~~> n), and at the first line only of the CODE part, which corresponds to the next operation to reason about. Each of the operations involved here is handled using the tactic xapp. First, we reason about the operation !p that reads into p; this read operation returns the value n.

Second, we reason about the addition operation n+1.

Third, we reason about the update operation p := n+1, thereby updating the state to p ~~> (n+1).

At this stage, the proof obligation takes the form H₁ ==> H₂. It requires us to check that the final state matches what is claimed in the postcondition. We discharge it using the tactic xsimpl.

This completes the verification of the lemma triple_incr, which establishes a formal specification for the increment function. Before moving on to another function, we associate using the command shown below the lemma triple_incr with the function incr in a hint database called triple. Doing so, when we verify a function that features a call to incr, the xapp tactic will be able to automatically invoke the lemma triple_incr.

The reader may be curious to know what the notation PRE H CODE F POST Q stands for, and what the x-tactics are doing. Everything will be explaiend throughout the course. This chapter and the next one focus presenting the features of Separation Logic, and on showing how x-tactics can be used to verify programs in Separation Logic.

A Function with a Return Value

As a second example, let us specify a function that performs simple arithmetic computations. The function, whose code appears below, expects an integer argument n (in Z). It evaluates a as n+1, then evaluates b as n-1, and finally returns the sum a+b. The function thus always returns 2*n.

The specification takes the form triple (example_let n) H (fun r ⇒ H'), where r, of type val, denotes the output value. The precondition H describes what we need to assume about the input state. For this function, we need not assume anything, hence we write \[] to denote the empty precondition. The program might have allocated data prior to the call to the function example_let, however this function will not interfer in any way with this previously-allocated data. The postcondition describes what the function produces. More precisely, it describes in general both the output that the function returns, and the data from memory that the function has allocated, accessed, or updated. The function example_let does not interact with the state, thus the postcondition could be described using the empty predicate \[]. Yet, if we write just fun (r:val) ⇒ \[] as postcondition, we would have said nothing about the output value r produced by a call example_let. Instead, we would like to specify that the result r is equal to 2*n. To that end, we write the postcondition fun r ⇒ \[r = 2*n]. Here, we use the predicate \[P], which allows to embed "pure facts", of type Prop in preconditions and postconditions. The equality r = 2*n actually resolves to r = val_int (2*n), where val_int is a coercion that translates the integer value 2*n into the corresponding integer value, of type val, from the programming language. If you do not know what a coercion is, just ignore the previous sentence, and wait until chapter Rules to learn about coercions.

The proof script is quite similar to the previous one: xwp begins the proof, xapp performs symbolic execution. and xsimpl simplifies the entailment. Ultimately, we need to check that the expression computed, (n + 1) + (n - 1), is equal to the specified result, that is, 2*n. To prove this equality, we invoke the tactic math, which is a variant of the tactic lia provided by the TLC library. Recall from the preface that this course leverages TLC for enhanced definitions and tactics.

From here on, we use the command Proof using for introducing a proof instead of writing just Proof. Doing so enables asynchronous proof checking, a feature that may enable faster processing of scripts. Moreover, to minimize the amount of syntactic noise in specifications, we leverage the coercion mechanism to allow writing the specified term, here example_let n simply surrounded with parentheses, as opposed to the heavier form <{ example_let n }>. (See Rules for details). For example, we would format the previous proof in the following form.

Exercise: 1 star, standard, especially useful (triple_quadruple)

Consider the function quadruple, which expects an integer n and returns its quadruple, that is, the value 4*n.

Specify and verify the function quadruple to express that it returns 4*n. Hint: follow the pattern of the previous proof.

Exercise: 2 stars, standard, especially useful (triple_inplace_double)

Consider the function inplace_double, which expects a reference on an integer, reads its contents, then updates the contents with the double of the original value.

Specify and verify the function inplace_double. Hint: follow the pattern of the first example, namely triple_incr.

Separation Logic Operators

Increment of Two References

Consider the following function, which expects the addresses of two reference cells, and increments both of them.

The specification of this function takes the form triple (incr_two p q) H (fun _ ⇒ H'), where the underscore symbol denotes the result value. We do not bother binding a name for that result value because it always consists of the unit value. The precondition describes two references cells: p ~~> n and q ~~> m. To assert that the two cells are distinct from each other, we separate their description with the operator \*. Thus, the precondition is (p ~~> n) \* (q ~~> m), or simply p ~~> n \* q ~~> m. The operator \* is called the "separating conjunction" of Separation Logic. It is also known as the "star" operator. The postcondition describes the final state in a similar way, as p ~~> (n+1) \* q ~~> (m+1). This predicate reflects the fact that the contents of both references gets increased by one unit. The specification triple for incr_two is thus as follows. The proof follows the same pattern as in the previous examples.

Because we will make use of the function incr_two later in this chapter, we register the specification triple_incr_two in the triple database.

A quick point of vocabulary before moving on: Separation Logic expressions such as p ~~> n or \[] or H₁ \* H₂ are called "heap predicates", because they corresponding to predicates over "heaps", i.e., predicates over memory states.

Aliased Arguments

The specification triple_incr_two stated above describes the behavior of calls to the function incr_two only for cases where the two arguments provided correspond to distinct reference cells. It says nothing, however, about a call of the form incr_two p p. Indeed, in Separation Logic, a state described by p ~~> n cannot be matched against a state described by p ~~> n \* p ~~> n, because the star operator requires its operand to correspond to disjoint pieces of state. What happens if we nevertheless try to exploit triple_incr_two to reason about a call of the form incr_two p p, that is, with aliased arguments? Let's find out, by considering the operation aliased_call p, which does execute such a call.

A call to aliased_call p increases the contents of p by 2. This property can be specified as follows.

If we attempt the proof, we get stuck. The tactic xapp reports its failure by issuing a proof obligation of the form \[] ==> (p ~~> ?m) \* _. This proof obligation requires us to show that, from the empty heap predicate state, one can extract a heap predicate p ~~> ?m describing a reference at location p with some integer contents ?m.

On the one hand, the precondition of the specification triple_incr_two, with q = p, requires providing p ~~> ?n \* p ~~> ?m. On the other hand, the current state is described as p ~~> n. When trying to match the two, the internal simplification tactic xsimpl is able to cancel out one occurrence of p ~~> n from both expressions, but then there remains to match the empty heap predicate \[] against (p ~~> ?m). The issue here is that the specification triple_incr_two is specialized for the case of "non-aliased" references. One thing we can do is to state and prove an alternative specification for the function incr_two, to cover the case of aliased arguments. The precondition of this alternative specification mentions a single reference, p ~~> n, and the postcondition asserts that the contents of that reference gets increased by two units. This alternative specification is stated and proved as follows.

By exploiting the alternative specification for incr_two, we are able to prove the specification of the function aliased_call. In order to indicate to the tactic xapp that it should not invoke the lemma triple_incr_two registered for incr_two, but instead invoke the lemma triple_incr_two_aliased, we provide that lemma as argument to xapp. Concretely, we write xapp triple_incr_two_aliased.

Taking a step back, it may appear somewhat disappointing that we need two different specifications for a same function, depending on whether its arguments are aliased on not. There exists advanced features of Separation Logic that allow handling the two cases through a single specification. However, for such a simple function it is easiest to just state and prove the two specifications separately.

A Function that Takes Two References and Increments One

Consider the following function, which expects the addresses of two reference cells and increments only the first one. What is interesting about this function is precisely the fact that it does nothing with its second argument.

We can specify this function by describing its input state as p ~~> n \* q ~~> m, and describing its output state as p ~~> (n+1) \* q ~~> m. Formally:

The second reference plays absolutely no role in the execution of the function. Thus, we could equally well consider a specification that mentions only the existence of the first reference.

Interestingly, the specification triple_incr_first, which mentions the two references, is derivable from the specification triple_incr_first', which mentions only the first reference. To prove the implication, it suffices to invoke the tactic xapp with argument triple_incr_first'.

More generally, in Separation Logic, if a specification triple holds, then this triple remains valid when we add the same heap predicate to both the precondition and the postcondition. This is the "frame" principle, a key modularity feature that we'll come back to later on in the course.

Transfer from one Reference to Another

Consider the transfer function, whose code appears below. Recall that, to simplify the implementation of the framework used in the course, we need to assign a name to every intermediate result.

Exercise: 1 star, standard, especially useful (triple_transfer)

State and prove a lemma called triple_transfer, to specify the behavior of transfer p q in the case where p and q denote two distinct references.

Exercise: 1 star, standard, especially useful (triple_transfer_aliased)

State and prove a lemma called triple_transfer_aliased specifying the behavior of transfer when it is applied twice to the same argument. It should take the form triple (transfer p p) _ _.

Specification of Allocation

Consider the operation ref v, which allocates a memory cell with contents v. How can we specify this operation using a triple? The precondition of this triple should be the empty heap predicate, written \[], because the allocation can execute in an empty state. The postcondition should assert that the output value is a pointer p, such that the final state is described by p ~~> v. It would be tempting to write the postcondition fun p ⇒ p ~~> v. Yet, the triple would be ill-typed, because the postcondition of a triple must be a predicate over values, of type val in the framework, whereas here p is an address, of type loc. We thus need to write the postcondition in the form fun (r:val) ⇒ H', where r denotes the result value, and somehow assert that r is the value that corresponds to the location p. This value is written val_loc p, where val_loc denotes the constructor that injects locations into the grammar of program values. To formally quantify the variable p, we use the existential quantifier for heap predicates, written \∃. The correct postcondition for ref v is thus fun r ⇒ \∃ (p:loc), \[r = val_loc p] \* (p ~~> v). The complete statement of the specification appears below. It appears as a Parameter instead of a Lemma, because the semantics of the primitive operation ref is established in another file, directly with respect to the semantics---in Rules.

The pattern fun r ⇒ \∃ p, \[r = val_loc p] \* H) occurs whenever a function returns a pointer. To improve concision for this frequent pattern, we introduce a specific notation, of the form funloc p ⇒ H.

Using this notation, the specification triple_ref can be reformulated more concisely, as follows.

The tool CFML, which leverages similar techniques as described in this course, leverages type-classes to generalize the notation funloc to all return types. Yet, in order to avoid technical difficulties associated with type-classes, we will not go for the general presentation, but instead exploit the funloc notation, specific to the case where the return type is a location. For other types, we can quantify over the result value explicitly.

Allocation of a Reference with Greater Contents

Consider the following function, ref_greater, which takes as argument the address p of a memory cell with contents n, allocates a fresh memory cell with contents n+1, then returns the address of that fresh cell.

The precondition of ref_greater needs to assert the existence of a cell p ~~> n. The postcondition of ref_greater should assert the existence of two cells, p ~~> n and q ~~> (n+1), where q denotes the location returned by the function. The postcondition is thus written funloc q ⇒ p ~~> n \* q ~~> (n+1), which is a shorthand for fun (r:val) ⇒ \∃ q, \[r = val_loc q] \* p ~~> n \* q ~~> (n+1).

Exercise: 2 stars, standard, especially useful (triple_ref_greater_abstract)

State another specification for the function ref_greater with a postcondition that does not reveal the contents of the fresh reference q, but instead only asserts that it is greater than the contents of p. To that end, introduce in the postcondition an existentially quantified variable called m, with m > n. This new specification, to be called triple_ref_greater_abstract, should be derived from triple_ref_greater, following the proof pattern employed in triple_incr_first_derived.

Deallocation in Separation Logic

Separation Logic, in its simplest form, enforces that every piece of allocated data is eventually deallocated. Yet, OCaml is a programming language equipped with a garbage collector: programs do not contain explicit deallocation operations. Thus, concretely, if we consider an OCaml program that allocates a reference and that this reference is not described in the postcondition, we get stuck in the proof. In what follows, we will first describe how the proof gets stuck, then we will see how the problem goes away by adding an explicit deallocation operation, and we'll point at a later chapter (Affine) for the presentation of a generic solution to handling implicit deallocation. To begin with, consider the following function, which makes local use of a reference, without exposing that reference in the postcondition. This function computes the successor of a integer n. It first stores n into a reference cell, then it increments that reference, and finally it returns the new contents of the reference.

A call to that function can be specified using an empty precondition and a postcondition asserting that the final result is equal to n+1. Let us investigate how we get stuck on the last step when trying to prove that specification.

We get stuck with the unprovable entailment p ~~> (n+1) ==> \[], where the left-hand side describes a state with one reference, whereas the right-hand side describes an empty state. There are three possibilities to work around the issue. The first solution consists of extending the postcondition to account for the existence of the reference p. This yields a provable specification.

However, while the specification above is provable, it is totally unsatisfying. Indeed, the piece of postcondition \∃ p, p ~~> (n+1) is of absolutely no use to the caller of the function. Worse, the caller will get its own heap predicate polluted with \∃ p, p ~~> (n+1), with no way of throwing away that predicate. A second solution is to alter the code of the program to include an explicit free operation, written free p, for deallocating the reference. This operation does not exist in OCaml, but let us nevertheless assume it to be able to demonstrate how Separation Logic supports reasoning about explicit deallocation.

This program may be proved correct with respect to the intended postcondition fun r ⇒ \[r = n+1], without the need to mention p. In the proof, shown below, the key step is the last call to xapp. This call is for reasoning about the operation free p, which consumes (i.e., removes) from the current state the heap predicate of the form p ~~> _. At the last proof step, we invoke the tactic xval for reasoning about the return value.

The third solution consists of considering a generalized version of Separation Logic in which specific classes of heap predicates may be freely discarded from the current state, at any point during the proofs. This variant is described in the chapter Affine.

Combined Reading and Freeing of a Reference

The function get_and_free takes as argument the address p of a reference cell. It reads the contents of that cell, frees the cell, and returns its contents.

Exercise: 2 stars, standard, especially useful (triple_get_and_free)

Prove the correctness of the function get_and_free.

Recursive Functions

Axiomatization of the Mathematical Factorial Function

Our next example consists of a program that evaluates the factorial function. To specify this function, we consider a Coq axiomatization of the mathematical factorial function, named facto. Here again, we use the Parameter keyword because we are not interested in the details of the implementation of this function. We wrap the axiomatization inside a module, so that we can later refer to it from other files.

The factorial of 0 and 1 is equal to 1, and the factorial of n for n > 1 is equal to n * facto (n-1). Note that we purposely leave unspecified the value of facto on negative arguments.

A Partial Recursive Function, Without State

As a warm-up, we first consider consider a recursive function that does not involve any mutable state. The program function factorec computes the factorial of its argument: it implements the logical function facto.     let rec factorec n =
      if n ≤ 1 then 1 else n * factorec (n-1) The corresponding code in A-normal form is slightly more verbose.

A call to factorec n can be specified as follows:

• the initial state is empty,
• the final state is empty,
• the result value r is such that r = facto n, when n ≥ 0.

In case the argument is negative (i.e., n < 0), we have two choices:

• either we explicitly specify that the result is 1 in this case,
• or we rule out this possibility by requiring n ≥ 0.

Let us follow the second approach, in order to illustrate the specification of partial functions. There are two possibilities for expressing the constraint n ≥ 0:

• either we use as precondition \[n ≥ 0],
• or we we use the empty precondition, that is, \[], and we place an assumption (n ≥ 0) → _ to the front of the triple.

The two presentations are totally equivalent. We prefer the second presentation, which tends to improve both the readability of specifications and the conciseness of proof scripts. In that style, the specification of factorec is stated as follows.

In general, we prove specifications for recursive functions by exploiting a strong induction principle statement ("well-founded induction") that allows us to assume, while we try to prove the specification, that the specification already holds for any "smaller input". The (well-founded) order relation that defines whether an input is smaller than another one is specified by the user. In the specific case of the function factorec, the input is a nonnegative integer n, so we can assume, by induction hypothesis, that the specification already holds for any nonnegative integer smaller than n. Let's walk through the proof script in detail, to see in particular how to set up the induction, how we exploit it for reasoning about the recursive call, and how we justify that the recursive call is made on a smaller input.

We set up a proof by induction on n to obtain an induction hypothesis for the recursive calls. The well-founded relation downto 0 captures the order on arguments: downto 0 i j asserts that 0 ≤ i < j holds. The tactic induction_wf, provided by the TLC library, helps setting up well-founded inductions. It is exploited as follows.

Observe the induction hypothesis IH. By unfolding downto as done in the next step, we can see that this hypothesis asserts that the specification that we are trying to prove already holds for arguments that are smaller than the current argument n, and that are greater than or equal to 0.

We may then begin the interactive verification proof.

We reason about the evaluation of the boolean condition n ≤ 1.

The result of the evaluation of n ≤ 1 in the source program is described by the boolean value isTrue (n ≤ 1), which appears in the CODE section after Ifval. The operation isTrue is provided by the TLC library as a conversion function from Prop to bool. The use of such a conversion function (which leverages classical logic) greatly simplifies the process of automatically performing substitutions after calls to xapp. We next perform the case analysis on the test n ≤ 1.

Doing so gives two cases. In the "then" branch, we can assume n ≤ 1.

Here, the return value is 1.

We check that 1 = facto n when n ≤ 1.

In the "else" branch, we can assume n > 1.

We reason about the evaluation of n-1

We reason about the recursive call, implicitly exploiting the induction hypothesis IH with n-1.

We justify that the recursive call is indeed made on a smaller argument than the current one, that is, a nonnegative integer smaller than n.

We justify that the recursive call is made to a nonnegative argument, as required by the specification.

We reason about the multiplication n * facto(n-1).

We check that n * facto (n-1) matches facto n.

A Recursive Function with State

Let's now tackle a recursive function involving some mutable state. The function repeat_incr p m makes m times a call to incr p. Here, m is assumed to be a nonnegative value.     let rec repeat_incr p m =
      if m > 0 then (
        incr p;
        repeat_incr p (m - 1)
      ) In the concrete syntax for programs, conditionals without an 'else' branch are written if t₁ then t₂ end. The keyword end avoids ambiguities in cases where this construct is followed by a semi-column.

The specification for repeat_incr p requires that the initial state contains a reference p with some integer contents n, that is, p ~~> n. Its postcondition asserts that the resulting state is p ~~> (n+m), which is the result after incrementing m times the reference p. Observe that this postcondition is only valid under the assumption that m ≥ 0.

Exercise: 2 stars, standard, especially useful (triple_repeat_incr)

Prove the specification of the function repeat_incr, by following the template of the proof of triple_factorec'. Hint: begin the proof with intros m. induction_wf IH: ..., but make sure to not leave n in the goal, otherwise the induction principle that you obtain is too weak.

In the previous examples of recursive functions, the induction was always performed on the first argument quantified in the specification. When the decreasing argument is not the first one, additional manipulations are required for re-generalizing into the goal the variables that may change during the course of the induction. Here is an example illustrating how to deal with such a situation.

First, introduces all variables and hypotheses.

Next, generalize those that are not constant during the recursion. We use the TLC tactic gen, which is a shorthand for generalized dependent.

Then, set up the induction.

Finally, re-introduce the generalized hypotheses.

The rest of the proof is exactly the same as before.

Trying to Prove Incorrect Specifications

We established for repeat_incr p m a specification featuring the hypothesis m ≥ 0, but what if we did omit this hypothesis? At which step would we get stuck in the proof? What feedback would we get at that step? Certainly, we expect the proof to get stuck because if m < 0. Indeed, in that case, the call to repeat_incr p m terminates immediately, thus the final state is p ~~> n, like the initial state, and this final state does not match the claimed postcondition p ~~> (n + m). Let us investigate how the proof of lemma triple_repeat_incr breaks.

At this point, we are requested to justify that the current state p ~~> n matches the postcondition p ~~> (n + m), which amounts to proving n = n + m.

When the specification features the assumption m ≥ 0, we can prove this equality because the fact that we are in the else branch means that m ≤ 0, thus m = 0. However, without the assumption m ≥ 0, the value of m could very well be negative. In that case, the equality n = n + m is unprovable. As a user, the proof obligation (m ≤ 0) → (n = n + m) gives us a very strong hint on the fact that either the code or the specification is not handling the case m < 0 properly. This concludes our example attempt at proving an incorrect specification. In passing, we note that there exists a valid specification for repeat_incr that does not constrain m but instead specifies that, regardless of the value of m, the state evolves from p ~~> n to p ~~> (n + max 0 m). The corresponding proof scripts exploits two characteristic properties of the function max.

Here is the most general specification for the function repeat_incr.

Exercise: 2 stars, standard, optional (triple_repeat_incr')

Prove the general specification for the function repeat_incr, covering also the case m < 0.

A Recursive Function Involving two References

Consider the function step_transfer p q, which repeatedly increments a reference p and decrements a reference q, as long as the contents of q is positive.     let rec step_transfer p q =
      if !q > 0 then (
        incr p;
        decr q;
        step_transfer p q
      )

The specification of step_transfer is essentially the same as that of the function transfer presented previously, the only difference being that we here assume the contents of q to be nonnegative.

Exercise: 2 stars, standard, especially useful (triple_step_transfer)

Verify the function step_transfer. Hint: to set up the induction, follow the pattern shown in the proof of triple_repeat_incr'.

Summary

This chapter introduces the following notions:

• "Heap predicates", which are used to describe memory states in Separation Logic.
• "Specification triples", of the form triple t H Q, which relate a term t, a precondition H, and a postcondition Q.
• "Entailment proof obligations", of the form H ==> H' or Q ===> Q', which assert that a pre- or post-condition is weaker than another one.
• "Verification proof obligations", of the form PRE H CODE F POST Q, which are produced by the framework, and capture triples by leveraging a notion of "weakest precondition", presented further in the course.
• Custom proof tactics, called "x-tactics", which are specialized tactics for carrying discharging these proof obligations.

Several "heap predicates", used to describe memory states, were presented in this first chapter. They include:

• p ~~> n, which describes a memory cell at location p with contents n,
• \[], which describes an empty state,
• \[P], which also describes an empty state, and moreover asserts that the proposition P is true,
• H₁ \* H₂, which describes a state made of two disjoint parts, one satisfying H₁ and another satisfying H₂,
• \∃ x, H, which is used to quantify variables in postconditions.

All these heap predicates admit the type hprop, which describes predicates over memory states. Technically, hprop is defined as state→Prop. The verification of practical programs is carried out using x-tactics, identified by the leading "x" letter in their name. These tactics include:

• xwp to begin a proof,
• xapp to reason about an application,
• xval to reason about a return value,
• xif to reason about a conditional,
• xsimpl to simplify or prove entailments (H ==> H' and Q ===> Q').

In addition to x-tactics, the proof scripts exploit standard Coq tactics, as well as tactics from the TLC library, which provides a bunch of useful, general purpose tactics. In this chapter, we used a few TLC tactics:

• math, which is a variant of lia for proving mathematical goals,
• induction_wf, which sets up proofs by well-founded induction,
• gen, which is a shorthand for generalize dependent, a tactic also useful to set up induction principles.

Historical Notes

The key ideas of Separation Logic were devised by John Reynolds, inspired in part by older work by [Burstall 1972]. Reynolds presented his ideas in lectures given in the fall of 1999. The proposed rules turned out to be unsound, but [Ishtiaq and O'Hearn 2001] noticed a strong relationship with the logic of bunched implications by [O'Hearn and Pym 1999], leading to ideas on how to set up a sound program logic. Soon afterwards, the seminal publications on Separation Logic appeared at the CSL workshop [O'Hearn, Reynolds, and Yang 2001] and at the LICS conference [Reynolds 2002]. The Separation Logic specifications and proof scripts using x-tactics presented in this file are directly adapted from the CFML tool (2010-2020), developed mainly by Arthur Charguéraud. The notations for Separation Logic predicates are directly inspired from those introduced in the Ynot project [Chlipala et al 2009]. See chapter Bib for references.